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Report:
DECLINE OF UKRAINIAN STATEHOOD AND CULTURE (1712-1783)
Lipich Vitalii
Form 11-V
School 1
Lutsk - 2002
After defeat of Mazepa, tsar Peter intensified his efforts to
subjugate Ukraine. Hetman Skoropadskyi had his powers restricted by
Russian supervisors. His residence was transferred from Baturyn to
Hlukhow near Russian border, where two Russian garrisons were stationed
to ensure his loyalty to Moscow.
Ukrainian population became burdened by plundering Russian military
units, dispersed throughout the country. Cossacks were sent to work on
construction of canals near St Petersburg, connecting river Volga with
Baltic Sea, where they died in thousands from hunger, exhaustion and
sickness. Many Cossack colonels were replaced by Russian nationals.
In 1722, tsar appointed a council called "Little Russian
Collegiate", controlled by senior Russian officers and headed by
brigadier Velmyaninow, to monitor and audit hetman's activities and
decisions. This, for practical purposes, transferred all powers to
Russians, leaving Cossack hetman and his officers only with empty
titles.
Hetman Skoropadskyi was very upset by such situation; he became ill
and died in 1722. tsar Peter used this opportunity to abolish the
office of hetman altogether. He directed Cossack colonel Polubotok to
perform hetman's duties under supervision of Velmyaninow and refused to
agree to Cossack requests to elect new hetman.
Russian occupiers continued to persecute and impoverish Ukrainian
population. They kept sending more Cossacks to work on construction of
canals, connecting Caspian Sea with Baltic Sea, where some 20000
Cossacks perished during years 1721 to 1725.
Polubotok was an honest and energetic man. He managed to improve
law and order within Cossack establishment and to improve living
conditions of the population. However this did not please Russian
authorities, who relied on disorder and corruption to maintain their
grip on Ukraine. They feared Polubotok's growing popularity and his
efforts to re establish Hetmanate.
Velmyaninow complained to tsar that Polubotok was not complying
with his directives. Consequently Polubotok was arrested and
interrogated under torture in Petropavlowsk fort, near St Petersburg.
He died there, as a martyr for Ukrainian cause in autumn 1724, in spite
of tsar's belated efforts to save him and to reconcile with Cossacks.
tsar Peter died soon after, at the beginning of year 1725.
Ukraine was thus left at the mercy of Velmyaninow and his henchmen.
As for Cossack colonels, some were in prison near St Petersburg and
others, who were not already replaced by Russians, kept quiet and to
scared to resist.
tsar Peter was succeeded by his wife Catherine. Faced with possible
war with Turkey, she needed Cossacks and wanted to return to them some
of their former freedoms. However she faced a stiff opposition from the
"old guard" in Russian government, therefore Cossacks received only few
minor concessions. Catherine died in spring 1727 and the grandson of
tsar Peter, Peter II became the emperor of Russia.
The new Russian government sacked Velmyaninow and his "Little
Russian Collegiate", released Cossack colonels from jail and appointed
70 year old Danylo Apostol as Cossack hetman. On 1st October 1727
Apostol was formally accepted by Cossacks by ceremonious election in
Hlukhow.
Although reporting to Russian "resident" Naumow, new hetman managed
to carry out considerable improvements in Ukrainian situation. His
loyalty to Moscow was ensured by presence of one of his sons as virtual
hostage in St Petersburg.
tsar Peter II died in 1730 and his aunt tsarina Anna became the
ruler of Russia. When hetman Apostol fell ill and became paralyzed, she
refused to hand over his powers to Cossacks and ordered Russian
"resident", prince Shakhowski to form a council, consisting mainly of
Russians, to take over. Hetman Apostol died in January 1734 and later
in that year Zaporozhtsi in Sitch decided to come over from Turkish to
Russian side.
With Ukraine becoming almost a province of Russia, russianization
of political, religious and cultural life intensified. Intermarriages
with Russians were encouraged and any efforts to regain independence
were brutally suppressed. Cossack colonels were kept under constant
observation and subjected to house Searches at the slightest sign of
disloyalty. Even any attempts to obtain justice were punished; when, in
1737, Kyiv's city counselors tried to defend their rights against
Russian excesses, they were all jailed. Things were so bad, that when
in 1740 an English general Keith was temporarily appointed in place of a
Russian administrator, people were amazed by his human behavior and
tolerance.
Times were hard for the top layer of Ukrainian society, but even
harder for middle and lower classes and peasants, who suffered most from
Russian exploitation. Cossacks were being forced to fight for Russia
against Turks, Tatars and Poles for small rewards, and often for
nothing.
Under such circumstances, yearning for the return of Hetmanate
autonomy persisted. The possibility of this to happen occurred after
the end of war with Turkey in 1740 and death of tsarina Anna in 1741. A
short regency of Anna II was terminated by a palace revolution,
whereupon the daughter of Peter I, Elizabeth was installed on Russian
throne.
Elizabeth was sympathetic to Ukrainian cause because, prior to
becoming tsarina, she befriended and fell in love with a handsome son of
a Cossack court choir singer, Oleksiy Rozumowskyi. She married him
after her coronation.
While visiting Kyiv in 1744, she agreed to promote Cossacks'
request to re install hetman's office and proposed Oleksiy's younger
brother Kyrylo Rozumowskyi for this position.
Twenty year old Kyrylo, who studied abroad, returned in 1746,
married into royal family and was bestowed with many orders and titles.
In 1747 Russian senate was requested to take steps toward re
establishment of Hetmanate.
In February 1750, ceremonious formality of election of new Cossack
hetman took place in Hlukhow, followed by celebrations and festivities.
In spring of 1751 hetman Kyrylo Rozumowskyi, again with great ceremony
and parade was installed as hetman.
Unfortunately, being brought up in St Petersburg, Rozumowskyi was a
stranger to Ukraine and ways of life there. His Russian advisor Teplow
was unsympathetic to Ukraine's newly won autonomy and did all he could
to hinder its development. Rozumowskyi himself was bored with life in
Ukraine and preferred to spend most of his time in St Petersburg.
It could be said that, during this period, Ukraine was divided into
several parts such as Left Bank consisting of Hetmanate and
Slobidshchyna, Zaporozhian Sich, Right Bank, Halychyna (Galicia),
Wolhynia, Bukovyna and Transcarpatia.
The Hetmanate included areas around Poltava, Lubny, Peryaslav,
Kyiv, Nizhyn, Chernihiv, Hlukhiv and also areas, which are at present
parts of Russian Federation, around Starodub, Pochep and Mhlyn.
The neighboring areas centered around Kharkiv were called
Slobidshchyna meaning free (from serfdom) lands also referred to as
Sloboda Ukraine. They included Izyum, Balakleya, Akhtyrka, Sumy and,
presently Russian areas around Bilhorod, Ostrohozhsk and Sudza.
Originally these lands were settled by adventurous people, who tried to
establish themselves free from Polish and Russian domination. They
formed Cossack regiments for protection from Tatars and for some time
were able to lead an independent life, because they served as a buffer
from Turks and Tatars. However later they fell under direct Russian
rule; the autonomy of Loboda Ukraine was abolished under Catherine II
in 1765.
To ensure lasting domination over these two parts of Ukraine,
Russians tried to suppress Ukrainian culture. They disallowed Ukrainian
language in books, schools and theaters. The church and government were
controlled by Moscow and the only way for a person to advance was to
speak Russian and to be loyal to Moscow.
While Ukraine on the east side of Dnipro (Left Bank) was being
russianized, the western Ukraine consisting of Galicia Wolhynia and
Bukovyna (areas around Lviv, Ternopil Lutsk and Chernivtsi) was under
Polish influence. Polish authorities were preventing not only national,
but also economic development of Ukrainians. The Orthodox Church was
being gradually taken over by Polish dominated Catholic Church.
Between western Ukraine and, Russian dominated, parts on east side
of Dnipro was a large territory on Right Bank, partly de-populated by
recent wars involving Cossacks, Poles, Russians, Turks and Tatars.
Gradually, Polish nobility began to return, reclaimed their landholdings
and started to exploit Ukrainian peasants as serfs. The resistance to
this, at first, was in the form of outlaw gangs, said to have robbed the
rich to help the poor. Some of the gang leaders were even considered as
folk heroes, such as Olexa Dowbush, who operated between 1738 and 1745.
There were also uprisings by so called Haydamaks, generally during
hostilities between Poland and Russia. The biggest uprising was in
1768. Haydamaks, led by Maxym Zaliznyak and Ivan Honta, captured Umanj
and killed many Polish oppressors and their Jewish collaborators. They
expected help from their Orthodox "brothers" from Russia. However
Russians made peace with Poland, captured Zaliznyak, Honta and many
other Haydamaks handed them over to Poles. Those, who were not
immediately tortured and executed, were tried in Kodno and sentenced, in
most cases, to death.
The Transcarpathian Ukraine (areas around Uzhhorod and Mukachiv)
was under Hungarian rule. Overwhelmingly rural in character
Transcarpathia had a Ukrainian - Ruthenian peasantry, a powerful
Hungarian nobility and a substantial number of urban and rural Jews.
Ukrainian population there did not display much enthusiasm for
independence but managed to retain their language, customs and religion.
Cancellation of Hetmanate was decided by tsarina Catering II, who
ruled Russia from 1762, after short reign of her husband Peter III.
Hetman Rozumovskyi resigned and, in his place, on November 1764, tsarina
re installed "Little Russian Collegiate", under presidency of Graf
Rumyantsev.
Rumyantsev's policy was to eliminate all remaining traces of
Ukrainian autonomy and separatism, to introduce serfdom of peasants and
to integrate Ukraine with Russia. This was resisted by Cossacks and
population at large.
In 1767 tsarina ordered election of deputies from all parts of
Russian Empire in order to be informed what kind of government people
want. The deputies from Ukraine declared their desire for Hetmanate
autonomy. This angered Rumyantsev and he sent out his officers to
persuade electors to elect deputies supporting his government; people
who resisted were jailed. However in spite of all efforts of Russian
authorities, the popular sentiment for return of Hetmanate system
continued.
In 1772 Galicia and, two years later, Bukovina were annexed to
Austro Hungarian Monarchy, which has somewhat improved conditions of
Ukrainians (Ruthenians in the contemporary terminology of Galicia).
In 1774 the Uniate church (renamed to Greek Catholic church) was, by
imperial decree, equalized in status with Roman Catholic church.
Educational reforms in 1775 allowed for instructions in Ukrainian
language. However on balance government policies favored the Poles.
The Cossack stronghold, Zaporozhian Sitch, was subservient to
Moscow and was utilized for raids on Crimea and Turkey. During Turkish
war, which started in 1768, several thousand Cossacks supported Russians
in battles on land and Sea. Their efforts were rewarded by eulogies
from tsarina but little else and restrictions of Cossack freedoms
continued. Their lands were being colonized by Russians, Serbians and
other foreigners with aim of creation of so called Novorossiya or New
Russia state in the south of Ukraine.
After end of Turkish war in 1775 the Cossacks were being gradually
disarmed and in the Summer of that year, Russian general Tekeli
surrounded Cossacks in Sitch itself with superior force and demanded
abandonment of their fortress. Faced with such overwhelming odds,
Cossack chief Kalnyshevskyj surrendered. Sitch was destroyed and
abolished by tzarist edict of 3rd August 1775. Kalnyshevskyj and other
Cossack leaders were exiled to Siberia.
The Cossack lands were granted to Russian nobles; Cossacks were
told to disperse and settle in towns and villages or to join Russian
forces. Many Cossacks escaped and settled in Turkey near Danube delta;
in 1778 they were formally accepted under Turkish rule.
By end of 1780 all districts, which were formerly under Hetmanate,
were incorporated into Russian regime. In 1783 all Cossack regiments
were transferred to Russian forces; peasants were prohibited to leave
their landlords, which made them serfs on their former land. Ukrainian
church autonomy was abolished and church property was transferred to
Russian treasury.
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